VO2 max- Exposing the Myth

VO2 max is defined as the maximal amount of oxygen the body is able to extract and use to support work performed by the body. It is therefore an indirect measure of the aerobic power of the body, which is controlled by complex interactions between neural (brain and nervous system), cardiovascular (heart and lungs) and skeletal muscle factors. The equation for VO2 max it is equal to the product of stroke volume (the maximum volume of blood the heart ejects in a contraction) and the arterio-venous difference (the difference between the saturation of the arterial blood and that of the venous blood). The aerobic power of the body will change constantly throughout a well-designed running program due to physiological changes and therefore its usefulness in designing a program and determining running capabilities is questionable.  This article aims to explain the reason VO2 max is a better indicator of fitness levels than running potential and conditioning program design.

Many physiological adaptations occur as one becomes more fit, some of these include: an increased size and efficiency of the heart, increased blood volume, increased muscle capillarization (more capillaries developed) and increased mitochondria (small bodies in the muscle cell that use oxygen to burn fat and make energy) density. So it should be obvious then that if we increase the stroke volume or the a-v difference (or both), the VO2 max will increase. With a more muscular heart and an increased blood volume you may increase the stroke volume and with a greater extraction of oxygen from the blood at the muscle level (more mitochondria) you can increase the a-v difference, which equals a higher VO2 max. Thus, VO2 max is a good indicator of physical condition or fitness.

The question arises whether it is beneficial to know your VO2 max to develop an ideal training regimen or whether a high VO2 max automatically determines you as a great runner. From evidence accumulated by Prof. Tim Noakes and his colleagues at the Sports Science Institute of South Africa the answer is that knowing your VO2 max will not answer either question. Here’s the explanation according to Dr. Andrew Bosch at the Institute. Dr Bosch questions whether VO2 max is genetically determined (i.e. an athlete with a high value has muscles that are capable of utilizing large amounts of oxygen and has a cardiovascular system capable of delivering this quantity of oxygen). This athlete can then run at a maximum aerobic speed that can be sustained by this amount of oxygen. If VO2 max was determined genetically, then it would make no difference if the athlete was highly unfit or superbly fit since the result of the test would be the same. However, it should be intuitively obvious that a fit and more conditioned runner can run at a higher speed (higher power output) on a treadmill than when unfit. Dr. Bosch suggests that in this situation the (high) VO2 max value would be attained at a very low running speed, which would be impossibly inefficient.

Dr. Bosch confirms the common knowledge that oxygen demand increases incrementally as the speed (power output) of the runner increases. This increase in oxygen consumption continues until the athlete can no longer continue running at that speed and stops. The volume of oxygen consumed at that instant is termed the VO2 max and the running speed, the peak running speed. Historically, exercise scientists have attributed a leveling out or a plateau to VO2 max and that at the point this occurs determines the value. Research by Noakes and colleagues indicate that half of athletes tested in laboratories fail to demonstrate a plateau and that their VO2 or oxygen consumption is still increasing when they cannot continue further. This poses a question as to why these runners stopped if their oxygen consumption (the supposed limiting factor) was still on the increase. Prof. Noakes feels and is continuing to search for evidence that some “central governor” regulates the power output to the exercising limbs to help protect the body from “running itself to death” via a heart attack (see VO2 Max or the Brain?). The fact that oxygen consumption continues to increase until ultimate fatigue indicates that as the fitness level of the athlete increases and he is able to run faster, so does his VO2 max. Therefore, the inability to use the VO2 max test as a predictor of future performance of an athlete that can still improve his running by using a scientifically devised program becomes obvious - a great training induced increase in running speed (decrease in race times) will transfer into a substantial increase in VO2 max and visa versa. Even knowing the peak speed is unlikely to help an individual for the same reasons and also possibly because of the unlikelihood of being able to sustain such a speed/intensity for the duration of a long distance run.

Professor Tim Noakes feels that running economy is the true measure of performance. Running economy is the relationship between maximal power output and oxygen consumption. Good running economy in this context means that a highly economical runner may actually achieve a higher treadmill speed or power output at a relatively low VO2 max and is therefore more efficient. A less economical runner will require a higher volume of oxygen to achieve the same power output.  Noakes is proposes that biomechanical efficiency contributes to running economy - for example, a runner with good core stability will waste less energy and power than a competitor with poor core strength that allows for inefficent movement. Also, Dr. Noakes considers superior runners to have superior fatigue resistance. That is, they have a superior heart that can maintain a high cardiac output at the maximum coronary blood flow and skeletal muscles that are efficient, elastic and possess a high degree of contractility.

Dr. Bosch concedes that even though it may be of little use in predicting running ability or program design, there are some uses for the VO2 max test. He advises that if a program is being designed for a beginning runner who has not run any races and therefore has no running times, a VO2 max test will give a good indication of the current condition of the athlete and how to base running schedules. Also, if performed regularly, a VO2 max test can give an indication of the effectiveness of the training program. Lastly, it is fun to compare own VO2 max to those of elite runners who often have values exceeding 70ml/kg/min. What’s your VO2 max?

Find out how your VO2 max can be tested.

References and further reading: more information on the concept and relevancy of VO2 max can be found in Lore of Running – a classic book in its fourth edition dedicated not only to running performance, but to exercise physiology as well.

Find out how to purchase Lore of Running

Copyright 2005 David Petersen BS, CSCS & B.O.S.S. Fitness

Flexibility for Golf

Any golfer knows that without optimal flexibility, they will never achieve the perfect swing. Most golf instructors will agree that the golf swing is a very complex movement to teach and learn, and the presence of muscle tightness compounds this complexity even more. Muscle tightness restricts range of motion required to hit the ball with power and accuracy, and also leads to muscle imbalances, which in turn lead to predictable deviations in posture and injury.

Most professional golf instructors will agree that posture when addressing the ball is probably the single most important predictor of the swing and shot to follow. Muscle imbalances occur when a muscle on one side of a joint becomes tight and strong, while another muscle on the opposite side of the joint that performs the opposite action becomes lengthened and weak. These imbalances force the body (and brain) to use other muscles to compensate for the weak ones, thus altering the mechanics of the joint. Over time and with repetitive use, these muscle imbalances will inevitably lead to an overuse or degenerative injury. This may explain why a large majority of golfers and even professionals are playing with elbow, wrist, shoulder or lower back pain or some combination of these. Most golfers are unaware of the muscle tightness that limits them and even less sure how to stretch them. If the golfer were to simply stretch the tight muscles for a few minutes a day, or before participating in a round of golf, this would be advisable however this would not eliminate the imbalance and compensations occurring.  It is essential to attack the root cause of the muscle imbalances and quite often they begin at the body's core.  Increased core strength often can correct many muscle imbalances since in essence all the muscles of the body attach to the core either directly of indirectly.  Although core strength is essential for optimal performance in any sport, golf relies heavily on the stability provided by the core stabilizing muscles to ensure the consistency and accuracy of the swing.

In conclusion, the most effective way of achieving optimal golf flexibility is by treating the muscle imbalance and postural deviations, by using core training and functional exercise to stretch the tight, strong muscles and strengthen the weak, lengthened ones. Interestingly, it has been suggested that the most effective stretch for a tight muscle is the continuous force supplied by the increased strength of its functional opposite/antagonist.

Find out more information on our Golf Specific Exercise Program

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Copyright 2005 David Petersen BS, CSCS & B.O.S.S. Fitness

A Simple Fitness Model Guaranteed To Slash Strokes Off Your Golf Game

Fitness training for golf has become so popular recently, with many of the big names like Tiger Woods and Anika Sorenstam crediting it for their performance.  While a golf fitness and conditioning program should be tailored for the individual golfer according to his or her current physical condition, it must also follow some sort of logical sequence too.  Using the Functional Fitness Pyramid model as a guide to your golf-conditioning program will have you booming your drives and draining your putts - guaranteed. 

What is the Functional Fitness Pyramid (FFP)?

The FFP is a highly effective model for designing any sport specific or functional training exercise conditioning program not just for improving golf fitness.  The FFP is so effective for exercise program design because each conditioning tier builds on the adaptations achieved in the tier below it - allowing for functional progressions that produce incredible results. 

Tier 1: Flexibility and stability

Flexibility and stability form the base or foundation of the golf fitness pyramid.  This tier involves stretching and exercises to develop your core as the foundation on which you will build your “golfing machine” body.  Attempting to strengthen your body for any sport without first developing core strength and flexibility will only lead to frustration for the trainer and the athlete. 

A good tip is to remember is that “You cannot fire a cannon from a canoe.” – that is the strength and power of your limb muscles can only be as strong as the core “anchor” to which they are attached.

Flexibility is the ability for a joint to actively and passively move through its full range of motion. A tight muscle is often an overactive muscle resulting from compensation or substitution for muscle weakness somewhere else in the body.  These are what is commonly referred to as muscle imbalances.

To improve flexibility, you must restore muscle balance by stretching the tight muscles and strengthening the weak ones.  Muscles that are frequently tight are the hip flexors, adductors (front and inside groin muscles), the low back, hamstrings, external hip rotators (deep butt), posterior neck and pec (chest) muscles.  Muscles that are frequently weak are the abdominals, glutes (butt), middle back and deep neck flexor muscles.

Stability can be thought of as the ability to control your center of gravity.  Static stability is what we commonly associate with our sense of balance while not moving the arms or legs; for example, your ability to stand on one foot with your eyes closed.  Dynamic stability is the ability to remain stable while generating force with the arms and legs like in the golf swing. 

It is crucial that you develop static stability first and then progress to dynamic stability. This makes sense since if you don’t have static stability, then how is it possible to have dynamic stability? 

So a well-designed golf exercise program will initially concentrate on static core exercises using a stability ball and progress to free weight and cable column exercises while maintaining “neutral spine and pelvis” (neutral spine and pelvis are synonymous and comparable to a person with good posture standing upright). 

The supine Swiss ball bridge is an example of a static stability exercise and the cable wood chop is an excellent example of a dynamic stability exercise.

Tier 2: Whole-body strength

The second tier of the FFP builds on the foundation of stability and flexibility to develop whole body strength.  Strength is the result of an improved communication of the muscles with the nervous system, that is, the brain is able to activate more nerves and more muscle fibers - increasing force generation. 

Initially, you may start doing general machine-type exercises like shoulder presses, lateral pull downs, leg presses, chest presses and rows to build strength, but it is important that you progress toward exercises that closely mimic the golf stance and swing too.   

Sport-specific exercises require the brain to form a motor plan.  A motor plan is the sequence of nerve firing that activates muscles to work in a certain pattern to cause a particular movement. Exercising this way provides what is known as transfer or “carry over” to your sport.  Isolated muscle strength is good, but to really smash your competition, you need strength in the motor pattern that most closely mimics the golf swing.  Exercises such as the cable wood chop and reverse cable wood chop are two very effective examples of exercises that mimic the swinging and throwing movements in many types of sport and especially golf.

It is also essential that the technique you use to perform sport-specific exercises is perfect.  Should you perform the exercises with bad technique, the brain remembers and reinforces the faulty motor pattern, thinking that it is actually normal and correct. Your brain is like a computer and a motor pattern like a program. If the program is full of “bugs” then the computer will not work effectively.  The adage JUNK IN = JUNK OUT is very applicable to all three phases of functional fitness and conditioning. 

The third tier of the FFP takes the newly acquired strength developed in tier 2 and converts it into power.  Power is essentially a measure of how quickly you can generate muscle force.  So high power is the ability to generate high force or torque at fast speeds - allowing you to generate higher club head speeds and “bomb” your drives.

Most golfers are confused when trying to improve their power and assume that if they swing a heavier club they will increase rotary coil power.  Unfortunately this is unlikely to happen since muscle contraction speed is directly dependent on force.  A muscle will contract much faster lifting little to no load compared to lifting a heavy load.  Using a heavier club may slightly increase torque, but it sacrifices club head speed - reducing power output.

A tried and tested method to train muscles to generate high power regardless of sport is to use plyometrics.  Plyometrics manipulates the nerve physiology of muscle to greatly increase the force and speed at which the muscle contracts by pre-stretching the muscle first (read this article for more information on Plyometrics). 

Exercises using rubber medicine balls are ideal for developing explosive coil and swing power for example, the medicine ball swing slam, the wood chop and reverse wood chop.  The elastic recoil force of the rebounding ball stretches the muscles of the trunk and back and eccentrically “preloads” them for the next side throw. 

The golden rule of power training is that it must be explosive, and the movements are quick and precise. It is essential then when doing plyometrics that the movements are not slow as this defeats the plyometric effect.

In closing, this article has provided some basic pointers for the golfer or athlete looking to improve their game with exercise.  Following the Functional Fitness Pyramid model to a “tee” will have you well on your way to a lower handicap and possibly even “taking on Tiger”.

Copyright 2005 David Petersen and B.O.S.S. Fitness Inc.

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